Alternative Methods to Prison Sentencing in Britain Essay

More and more people in Britain are being sentenced to jail time: this is a fact. In 2004, there are currently over eighty thousand inmates.[1] (Peter Reydt, 2004 / Scottish Executive, 2003) Crime is on the increase but our prisons are already overcrowded. Consequently, new prisons will be required to accommodate prisoners. Where will the money come from to pay for the construction of new prisons? Will they have a sufficient rehabilitation programs in place? The prison system is obviously failing because it is not acting as a deterrent. Clearly we should now be examining why the system is failing and possible alternatives to prison. What should these alternatives be? Would they work and would they†¦show more content†¦Consequently, all this toughening up on crime just seemed to be adding more and more numbers to the prison population. Jack Straw, the Home Secretary of the time, wanted to increase the use of electronic tagging to try and help ease the numbers entering prison but, on the other hand, he wanted to toughen up sentencing for offenders he described as the worst anti-social crimes such as burglary[5](Cascianni, 2002). This appears that Jack Straw was trying to decrease the prison population but at the same time increase it - a rather contradictory message. Since David Blunketts hard line speeches in 2002, the Howard League for Penal Reform who have been monitoring the prison numbers since 2001, noticed that the actual number of people being sent to prison had been constant until he started making tough speeches about crime and punishment. Since then, up to 500 more people per week have been sentenced to prison - a huge number and a huge burden on the prison service. Because of these increases being placed on the prison population, there is now more of a financial burden on the taxpayer. To keep an offender in prison for just one year, it will cost in excess of thirty seven thousand pounds whereas it would only cost around two thousand pounds to place an offender on a community punishment order (PeterShow MoreRelatedThe Need for Prisons in Britain Essay2046 Words   |  9 PagesThe Need for Prisons in Britain The prison population in England and Wales currently stands at 71,800. According to the Home Office estimate this figure is projected to rise to 83,500 by 2008. Similarly in Scotland, which has a separate legal system and its own private service, there are similar pressures. Prisons can be successful in their four aims: retribution, protection, deterrence and rehabilitation. Reconviction rates are at a substantial low, but is that enoughRead MoreSociological Perspective Of Punishment Is Economic Determinism And Class Interest1459 Words   |  6 Pagessee punishment in relation to the economic structure of society in which it takes place and to the class system, which as a result it promotes by penal practices and ideologies. In other words, the labour market has an impact on the choice of penal methods, and punishment serves the interest of the dominant class. Following from this Rusche and Kircheimer attempted to show that the penal practices in any society is directly linked to the mode of production, they highlighted that a shift from slaveryRead MoreThe Capital Punishment Is Important For Consideration Is Intergovernmental Relations1423 Words   |  6 Pagesto death. The death penalty laws date back to the Eighteenth Century B.C. Death sentences were carried out by crucifixion, drowning, beating, burning, and impalement. The country that influenced the death penalty to America was Great Britain. Most of Great Britain execution was usually done by hanging. The first use of the death penalty in America was in 1608. Captain George Kendall of Jamestown Colony of Virginia was executed for being a spy for Spain. Due to the first known objection of the deathRead MoreThe Controversy Over Capital Punishment2295 Words   |  10 Pageshave to provide alternatives to the death penalty that would make sure the criminals that committed the crimes receive harsh enough punishment that would please those wanting to keep the death penalty. Whether or not they are able to accomplish such a task is hard to say. The death penalty needs to be removed on the grounds that is unconstitutional. The first laws created to kill another human based on wrongdoings is thought to date back to the Eighteenth Century B.C. with methods such as stoningRead MoreShould Incarceration Serve as Rehabilitation or Retribution Essay3510 Words   |  15 PagesRehabilitation or Retribution Should Incarceration Serve as Rehabilitation or Retribution 1 Introduction Incarceration refers to the state of being confined in a prison. It may also mean detention, custody or captivity. This is usually as a result of a crime committed, and serves the offender as a form of punishment. It is meant to deter others from committing crimes, and to rehabilitate criminals. RehabilitationRead MoreThe Ineffective Use of Capital Punishment1445 Words   |  6 Pagestablets were Crucifixion, drowning, beating to death, and burning alive. Britain also used capital punishment for crimes. In the Tenth century they hung people. When King Henry was the ruler as many as 72,000 people have been executed. Some methods for executions during this time were boiling,burning, and beheading. You could have been executed for marrying a Jew,Treasoning, and not confessing to a crime. Capital punishment in Britain had influenced America. When the Europeans settled to america they broughtRead MoreThe Death Penalty Is A Capital Punishment1271 Words   |  6 Pagestwenty-five crimes, that were punishable by death. These crimes included adultery and helping slaves escape. This code was to become the stepping stones of laws of many civilizations to come. In the Tenth Century A.D., hanging became the usual method of execution in Britain. In the following next century, William the Conqueror, king of England would not allow people to be executed for any crime, except in times of war. This did not last, for in the Sixteenth Century, under the reign of Henry VIII, as manyRead MoreThe Punishment Mechanisms Of Probation And Parole Essay1844 Words   |  8 PagesThe punishment mechanisms of probation and parole developed from different social circumstances, which were driven by the need for alternative means to imprisonment. The creation of the mechanisms for probation can be linked to the moral panic caused by the excess consumption of alcohol and the increased amount of alcohol-related offences. In contrast, the development of parole was the result of the systems at t he time, failing to deliver the expected results. This essay will outline the differentRead MoreCapital Punishment : The Death Penalty2027 Words   |  9 PagesHammurabi in Babylon. The first recorded death penalty case took place in the 16th century BC where a man was sentenced to death for his alleged use of magic. The death penalty in the United States was influenced by Britain power over the original thirteen colonies. In the 1700’s, Britain had two hundred and twenty-two crimes that could be punished by death. The first legal execution in the United States took place in Virginia in 1622 where the defendant was put to death for theft (PBS). The first stateRead MoreThe Death Penalty Is Not The Most Effective Form Of Punishment1824 Words   |  8 Pagesever being allowed back on the streets to commit further crimes. The death penalty is a preferred method of punishment because it is permanent; however, it should be avoided because it is permanent. There is too much of a p ossibility that an innocent person could be executed for a crime that they did not commit. An execution cannot be undone. Studies have also shown that the death penalty is a biased method of punishment because disadvantaged people, such as minorities and people of lower social status

The Battle of Austerlitz Essay - 630 Words

Everyone knows that Napoleon was a great leader and commander but it is not as cut and dry as popular history makes it out to be. His great victory at Austerlitz cemented him as one of the greatest commanders in history. This battle is was a tactical masterpiece up there with Gaugamela and Cannae. However, there is more to analyze here than just the battle itself. Many aspects of war include mobilization, supply, training, moral, army structure etc. and all play a part in Napoleon’s victories and the creation of the French Empire. Another variable to consider is the quality of the armies led by Tsar Alexander I of Russia and the Holy Roman Emperor, Francis II of Austria. The focus here is to look at how these aspects played a role in†¦show more content†¦Napoleon truly believed in keeping his soldiers healthy and happy. There are more things to compare and analyze here and with the help of countless memoirs from soldiers on the field and commanders, it is possible to delve deeper into the variables of the battle. This also includes a background of how the state of the armies and their countries were before the battle took place. Primary sources include the memoirs of Napoleon, Memoirs from the Courts of Europe regarding the French, and memoirs from Russian commanders regarding the battle. Another good primary source is that of D.J. Larrey, a medical doctor and surgeon who was the first surgeon of Napoleon’s Imperial Guard. Being a surgeon, he had to deal many health issues that came up during campaign. It is no secret that disease could kill an army much more effectively than a musket. Secondary sources include texts by biographers and historians. One includes that of Alan Schom who saw much controversy on his portrayel of Napoleon but in response he said that he wanted to give Napoleon his â€Å"just due.† A book by Frederick W. Kagan also illustrates the battle of Austerlitz in vivid detail and includes maps and troop layouts and formations. Alan Forrest wrote a consolidated account of the French soldier under Napoleon by using the writings of the soldiers. This will be good to give an idea of the type of psychological state that Napoleon’s men were in. Rory Muir also wrote aShow MoreRelatedThe Battle Of Austerlitz : Napoleon As A Military Genius1495 Words   |  6 PagesThe Battle of Austerlitz depicts Napoleon as a military genius. In the nineteenth century many believed Napoleon to be a hero. As The Napoleonic Phenomenon points out: ‘The hero is said to have military genius’ (Barker, 2004, p.106). This is demonstrated by Gà ©rard’s use of colour with regard to Napoleon’s military uniform. The viewer’s attention is drawn to Napoleon dressed in a blue overcoat, a red sash and white bottoms, which is evocative of the tricolour. Furthermore, the hero was believed toRead MoreThe Battles And Disadvantages Of The Battle Of Waterloo1471 Words   |  6 Pages3. The Batt le of Waterloo The defeat of Napoleon during the Battle of Waterloo was the result of many disadvantages, such as weather, topography, and the arrival of Prussian reinforcements to aid the British army. Additionally, Napoleon left his best general, Davout, in Paris instead of using his expertise in battle, and instead, appointed inadequate generals, such as Michel Ney. Most of Sun Tzu’s principles that Napoleon considered for the Battle of Austerlitz were used against him by WellingtonRead MoreNapoleon Bonaparte And George Washington941 Words   |  4 PagesRevolutions, two Generals, on two Continents. Bonaparte and Washington fought for equality, freedom, and fraternity for their homelands. This essay will compare and contrast Napoleon Bonaparte and George Washington by their education, most significant battle, and achievements. The question is, was Napoleon Bonaparte a dictator, or one of the most remarkable military strategist? Opinions are diverse about the man who crowned himself as an Emperor. In fact, this explains Napoleon’s words when he said: â€Å"Circumstances-whatRead More Carl Sandburgs Use of Allusion in Grass Essays564 Words   |  3 Pagesfrom the grass to soldiers at war in Austerlitz and Waterloo to kill as many people as they can and shovel them under the grass so that it has enough history to pile under itself and wipe out all the marks of combat. Austerlitz is a village where on Dec. 2, 1805; Napoleon escorted an outnumbered French army to victory over Austrian and Russian forces. Waterloo is where Napoleon suffered his final defeat. Both battles are referenced to Napoleon. At Austerlitz, even though Napoleon tasted his firstRead MoreNapoleons Maxims: Saisir Le Moment1290 Words   |  6 Pagesarmy would be weak, regardless of size. Napoleon made sure to promote individuals on m erit to ensure only the best and most capable generals surrounded him. It was this confidence in his generals that allowed the French army to dominate the Battle of Austerlitz in 1805. Because Napoleon was significantly aided by his Marshals especially, Davout â€Å"The Iron Marshal,† his forces were able to decisively defeat the combined forces of Russia and Austria. He and his men marched for two days straight to arriveRead MoreEssay about Architecture and Insecurity3226 Words   |  13 PagesArchitecture and Insecurity An Analysis of Architecture as Metapho in WG Sebald’s Austerlitz Deyan Sudjic, journalist for the New York Times, writes in his discussion of the potential Freedom Tower meant to replace the cavernous holes that mark where the twin towers once stood: Clearly, there is a psychological parallel between making a mark on the landscape and the exercise of political power†¦both depend on the imposition of will†¦and among the dictatorial†¦there is an inherent appeal in seeingRead MoreEssay about Napoleon I1570 Words   |  7 Pagesthe British navy away from Britain, and didnt have enough power to face them. This, combined with Austria renewing war, forced Napoleon to return to France. Toward the end of 1805, the fleet Napoleon had taken was destroyed by the British at the Battle of Trafalgar, ending the threat of a French invasion of Britain. After this victory, Britain formed the third coalition and was preparing revenge for the attempted invasion of Britain. However, Napoleon had created the extremely powerful grand armyRead MoreThe Art Of War By Sun Tzu1905 Words   |  8 Pagesvolumes) , many of the strategies proposed in the Art of War were seen in Napoleon’s battles, yet crucial principles were still ignored, which directly impacted the result of his battles. The purpose of this essay is to analyze Napoleon’s tactics that relates to the principles from the Art of War and how it impacted the result of both successful and failed battles. As seen in the Battle of Austerlitz and the Battle of Ulm, the application of principles relating to terrain, deception, and the use andRead MoreNapoleon Bonaparte : The Downfall Of The French Revolution702 Words   |  3 PagesNapoleon’s popularity would reach its peak. Napoleon and his French army would win several battles defeating other countries like Italy and Austria. He returned to Paris as a hero, and he made the choice to invade Egypt. In 1798, he would sail with 35,000 men to Egypt. He would win the battle called the Battle of the Pyramids. In the same year, the British fleet would destroy the French navy in the Battle of Aboukir led by Admiral Nelson. In 1799, Napoleon would return to Paris after the FrenchRead MoreNapoleons Rise to Power1786 Words   |  8 Pageswould go on to make history. Napoleon was a rising star in the French military. A general at the age of 27, he had won the admiration of France thanks to his leadership, military talents, and personal talents. While in the military, he won many battles over Austria. In 1795, the people of France, tired of the Reign of Terror, revolted, executing many leaders of the Terror. The Directory took power. Upon Napoleons return to France, he found that many people were very dissatisfied with the Directory

Midsummer Nights Dream Essay Summary Example For Students

Midsummer Nights Dream Essay Summary In Shakespeares, MIDSUMMER NIGHTS DREAM, he wrote about a tragedy that he turned into a comedy. He did this to show his audience how stupid humans can act upon their emotions. There are three plots that tie together with one main situation. There is Hermia and Lysander, two star crossed lovers that cant be together. Hermias father wants her to marry Demetrius who Hermias bestfriend Helena loves. Demetrius loves Hermia and trys to pursue her. Then there is Oberon and Titania the King and Queen of the fairies. Oberon is jealous of Titania because she has an Indian boy that shes spending all her time with. He wants the baby and they have a quarrel about it. So as revenge he gets his servant Puck, a fairy, to put a potion in her eyes to distract her when Oberon steals her baby. But this potion made her fall inlove with the first living thing she saw which cooincidently was a jack ass. At first Oberon was amused but then he realized he didnt like how her attention was on the jack ass and not him. Last but not least is a group of dorky guys who are making a play for the first time. Their play is about a tragic love story that ends up in the death of both the lovers because they couldnt be together. The fairies and these clowns that are making the play are very essential for the main plot of Hermia and Lysander and their problems, because it shows how people really act and how their effects are showed in the play. The fairies are essential to the main plot because without Puck there wouldnt have been a comedy at all. Even though he brought confusion to Hermia and Helena about how Lysander and Demetrius both all of the sudden fall inlove with Hermia, at the end Oberon fixed the situation so everyone would be happy. The clowns are also needed because the play they are acting out shows if two lovers cant have each other the way they do, they act on emotions instead of logic and reality, they would take dramatic actions. This play within the play was suppose to show how if you try to keep people away from each other when they dont want to be separated they will do something to act upon your rule. Just like Lysander and Hermia running away to be together against her fathers wishes. Without this play, Theseus would have never seen it and talked to Hermias father to change his mind and allowing his daughter to marry Lysander. What Shakespeare is trying to tell his audience is that if you try to stop lovers from being with one another, theyll find another way or do something terrible. Without these subplots in the play there would be no happy ending for everyone.

Biological Application

Question: Describe criteria for the selection of polymeric materials to be used as biomaterials. By giving suitable examples, explain the role of surface properties in biomaterials and how these properties can be evaluated. Answer: Material for Biological Application Biomaterials are used as a substitute material for biological applications. It is a synthetic material, which is used in manufacturing specialized pieces of equipment (Azab et al. 2006). These types of equipment are then replaced with a living organ or incorporated in a living tissue or cell system. The primary requirement for a suitable biomaterials is that it should be safe, economically affordable, and physiologically acceptable (Ramakrishna et al. 2001). Biomaterials are used in a broad range of clinical aspects like an artificial hip joint, bone plates, and screws, cardiac pacemaker, intra-ocular lens, mastectomy augmentation, chin augmentation, probes and catheters, artificial stapes, intra-medullary rod, etc. Material composed polymers are called polymeric compounds (Domb and Kumar, 2011). Polymers are composed of monomers that are the chemical units. Polymeric substances are highly used to manufacture the components mentioned. Along with low toxicity and reactive level, there are several factors like suitable surface properties are also maintained as a strong parameter (King and Lyman, 1975). Criteria for the selection of polymeric materials as biomaterials Polymers are used widely in biotechnology and medical sector, surgical equipment, implants, drug delivery systems, as carriers of immobilized enzymes and cells (Domb and Kumar, 2011).. Before considering a material as a biomaterial, it should be checked that whether the material's characteristics is matching with the parameters of an ideal biomaterial. Surface properties are one of the most important of these requirements as the surface properties can control a devices performance (Domb and Kumar, 2011). Interfacial properties of both device and the material used are needed to be addressed from outside. It is also important to monitor and modify the intrinsic surface properties as the clinical functioning of the biomedical equipment (Schmalz , 2009). The central aspect for a suitable biomaterial is biocompatibility (the suggested material should not be carcinogenic, nonpyrogenic, nontoxic and should not give rise to any allergic reaction). Sterilizable (The material can be sterilized by autoclave, dry heating, ethyl oxide gas, radiation, etc.). Physical property (high strength, elasticity and durability) and manufacturability (easy for machinability, molding, extruding and fiber forming) (Domb and Kumar, 2011).. Clinical problems that might be addressed Newly developed technologies have implemented the use of different biomaterials in a clinical study. High-compliance elastic polymers, synthetic and natural absorbable materials provide the scope of designing new equipment in biomedical sectors (Domb and Kumar, 2011). The phenomenon of designing new materials helps the researchers to study various tissues of human and animal sources. The study can develop clinically useful equipment. Ceramics is also used as an inert and bioactive materials used in clinical situations (Maganti, 2011). The Carbon surfaces have a high degree of tissue compatibility in a variety of cases such as heart valves, dental implants, percutaneous accessing equipment, finger joints and bone plates. In recent years, composite biomaterials are also used in clinical studies. It is a well known fact that all natural tissues are composite (Ratner et al. 2012). Using this principle, scientists have developed equipment made up of composite biomaterials that possess fle xibility and adaptation for blood contracting equipment. In recent studies. It is clear that spectroscopic techniques are used in the study of biomaterial surfaces and biomaterial-tissue interface study. These methods include the Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FITR) and electron spectroscopy for chemical analyzes (ESCA) are beneficial for both manufacturing and clinical follow-up (Maganti, 2011).. Importance of different properties The surface property is one of the major aspects to be considered in the case of biomaterials. The surface property is determined through analysis of both chemical compositions and different conversion processes. Through these techniques effects of the particular biomaterial on the local tissues can be monitored on a cellular level by the biomaterial-tissue interface.The desired cellular response is therefore highly controlled for proper medical implant design. The main aspects of surface properties to be considered are nonspecific interaction, specific binding and surface topology (Ratner et al. 2012). Bulk properties of a biomaterial include ionic bonding, covalent bonding, metallic bonding, van der Waals and hydrogen bonding. The physical, chemical, mechanical and electrical properties of a particular material should be evaluated carefully (Shi et al. 2006). These properties play a fundamental role in determining whether the material considered provided critical inputs to assess the interrelated biomechanical and biological analysis. In the case of clinical equipment, maximum yield strength, fatigue strength creep deformability, ductility and fracture possibility of the device should be considered. Elasticity, viscoelasticity of the material is also needed to be considered (Shi et al. 2006). In the case of chemical properties, the toxicity of the material is required to be studied broadly. Toxicity of a substance can increase due to primary degradation of the studied material. The qualitative study of the material should be carried out in order to monitor the material's toxicity level in a biological environment (Shue, Yufeng and Mony, 2012). The electrochemical properties of the material play a significant role as influences the possibility of the materials biocompatibility. Modification required RGD method can be applied to increase the cell adherence or the cell attachment of the biomaterials. RGD model is comprised of Arginine (R), Glycine (G) and Aspartic acid (D). Functionalized of materials using RGD immobilization techniques enhances the surface density, spatial arrangements, and integrin affinity. This method is mainly used in case of polymer modifications (Shue, Yufeng and Mony, 2012). Plasma-surface modification is also used in biomedical engineering. Plasma sputtering and etching, plasma implantation, plasma deposition, plasma polymerization laser plasma deposition, plasma spraying are the techniques under this method that are broadly used. Through this process, surface properties of a biocompatibility of a material can be increased keeping the bulk properties unchanged (Shue, Yufeng and Mony, 2012). Characterization: Electron Spectroscopy for Chemical Analysis (ESCA) is broadly used for the characterization of biomaterials.Using the photoelectric effect phenomenon, X-rays are intensified upon the specimen material. The interaction between the X-rays and atoms of the specimen emits core level electron or inner shell. The energy in these electrons is measured and evaluated. These data will reflect and highlight key information about the particular material (Sun et al. 2012). Secondary Ion Mass Spectroscopy (SIMS) In these methods a beam of primary ions are used and focused on the specimen. Secondary electrons that are emitted are then collected and analyzed. The mass of emitted ions is measured with this method (Sun et al. 2012). Infrared Spectroscopy (IR) is also known as Fourier Transform Infrared (FTIR) Spectroscopy. This method is used for the characterization. The infra-red spectrum of the subject material is obtained through passing a beam of infrared light through the sample. The transmitted light is examined, and the data will show the amount of light absorbed by the specimen on each wavelength. An absorbance spectrum is made according to the data (Sun et al. 2012). Contact Angle Method such as Wettability is also used for the characterization of a biomaterial. Other methods such as Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM), Scanning Tunneling Microscopy (STM) and Atomic Force Microscopy (AFM) are used for the surface characterization of a biomaterial (Shi et al. 2006). Recent Trends The development in biomaterial modification has been highly productive in the past few years. Newly developed techniques are used in clinical sectors that are helping many people across the globe. Currently development of artificial tissue, consisting macroscale and nanoscale features (Shue, Yufeng and Mony, 2012).. Chitosan is also developed as a biomaterial. Computerized additive and subtractive methods have recently used for the development of biomaterials. Now a day, atomic data obtained through computer tomography, MNR methods are also increasingly used. Recently, prostheses and biosensors are also developed using biomaterials to be implanted into organic systems. Electrospinning nano fibers are also developed in recent years from synthetic polymers. These nano fibers increase adhesion, proliferation, and differentiation of cells. These materials are used for intimating topographical architecture of human cells (Shue, Yufeng and Mony, 2012). From, these data, it can be considered that developing biomaterials in recent years and the future has a huge prospect that will enrich the clinical and medical sector. Many applications of biomaterials are used in different cases such as cardiovascular diseases, lenses for eye treatment, bone plates, etc. Biomaterials are used as the substitute for natural organic organs, tissues, etc. There is no other way to regenerate the natural organs or tissues. So bio materials play a crucial and important role that cannot be substituted by any other means (Shi et al. 2006). In conclusion, it can be considered that biomaterials play a crucial role in the artificial hip joint, bone plates, and screws, cardiac pacemaker, intra-ocular lens, mastectomy augmentation, chin augmentation, probes and catheters, artificial stapes, intra-medullary rod, etc. There are also some prospects such as nano fibers, artificial tissue, etc. Recently a GPS technology has been developed for the brain. There is also a huge future prospect as the equipment are needed to be enhanced and less cost efficient. Researchers are trying their level through scientific studies to develop more enhanced biomaterials. To produce such material, characterization of the materials is needed to be studied thoroughly. Existing characterization techniques are used as well as several new techniques are also used for a broader range of studies. These methods help to evaluate each character or properties more efficiently, which contributes to modify the substances more effectively. References Azab, A.K., Orkin, B., Doviner, V., Nissan, A., Klein, M., Srebnik, M. and Rubinstein, A., 2006. Crosslinked chitosan implants as potentially degradable devices for brachytherapy: in vitro and in vivo analysis.Journal of controlled release,111(3), pp.281-289. Domb, A.J. and Kumar, N. eds., 2011.Biodegradable polymers in clinical use and clinical development. John Wiley Sons. King, R.N. and Lyman, D.J., 1975. Polymers in contact with the body.Environmental health perspectives,11, p.71. Maganti, N., Surya, V., Pavan, K.C., Theinà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ Han, W.W., Pesacreta, T.C. and Misra, R.D.K., 2011. StructureProcessProperty Relationship of Biomimetic Chitosanà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ Based Nanocomposite Scaffolds for Tissue Engineering: Biological, Physicoà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ Chemical, and Mechanical Functions.Advanced Engineering Materials,13(3), pp.B108-B122. Pachence, J.M. and Kohn, J., 2000. Biodegradable polymers.Principles of tissue engineering,3, pp.323-339. Petrenko, Y.A., Ivanov, R.V., Petrenko, A.Y. and Lozinsky, V.I., 2011. Coupling of gelatin to inner surfaces of pore walls in spongy alginate-based scaffolds facilitates the adhesion, growth, and differentiation of human bone marrow mesenchymal stromal cells.Journal of Materials Science: Materials in Medicine,22(6), pp.1529-1540. Ramakrishna, S., Mayer, J., Wintermantel, E. and Leong, K.W., 2001. Biomedical applications of polymer-composite materials: a review.Composites science and technology,61(9), pp.1189-1224. Ratner, B.D., Hoffman, A.S., Schoen, F.J. and Lemons, J.E., 2004.Biomaterials science: an introduction to materials in medicine. Academic press. Schmalz, G., 2009. Determination of biocompatibility. InBiocompatibility of dental Materials(pp. 13-43). Springer Berlin Heidelberg. Shi, C., Zhu, Y., Ran, X., Wang, M., Su, Y. and Cheng, T., 2006. Therapeutic potential of chitosan and its derivatives in regenerative medicine.Journal of Surgical Research,133(2), pp.185-192. Shue, L., Yufeng, Z. and Mony, U., 2012. Biomaterials for periodontal regeneration: a review of ceramics and polymers.Biomatter,2(4), pp.271-277. Sun, H.H., Qu, T.J., Zhang, X.H., Yu, Q. and Chen, F.M., 2012. Designing biomaterials for in situ periodontal tissue regeneration.Biotechnology Progress,28(1), pp.3-20.

MANET Security Solutions

Abstract The phenomenal growth in mobile computing devices use over the last decade has led to revolutionary changes in the computing world. Mobile Ad Hoc Network (MANET) which are dynamically self-organized temporary networks have emerged as ideal networks for implementation in scenarios where adhoc wireless networks are required without the need for a central administration.Advertising We will write a custom research paper sample on MANET Security Solutions specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More While highly effective, these networks are prone to numerous attacks due to the sheer number of nodes in the network and limited energy, memory and computational abilities of the individual devices. This paper identifies the security threats as: flooding attacks, wormhole attacks, unauthorized access. It goes on to propose solutions to this security issues. Protocols that can be used to prevent flood attacks such as AODV are discussed. Various implementations of Intrusion Detection Systems are also reviewed as effective means of ensuring the integrity of the network. Cryptography and signcryption are proposed as novel means of establishing trust in the network. Hybrid firewall implementations that can work in MANETs are also discussed. To ensure authentication in the network, the use of certification graphs is proposed. To assist in the discovery of wormholes which pose significant risks to the network, trust and time based mechanisms for are reviewed. Introduction Today computing is not primarily reliant on the capabilities provided by the personal computers but increasingly on mobile computing devices which include: laptops, and personal digital assistants. Prevalence in mobile computing has made it necessary to implemented wireless networks which sometime need to be set up in an arbitrary manner. The Mobile Ad Hoc Network (MANET) has emerged as a feasible means to provide connectivity for ubiquitous computing. MANETs are considered as ideal technology in military and civilian applications where instant communication is desirable. In military applications, high security and performance must be guaranteed since these MANETs operate in hostile environments. A typical characteristic of MANETs is that they operate in unattended areas and are normally made up of a large number of sensor nodes. Meghdadi and Ozdemir (2011) state that these nodes can be in the order of thousands and they have limited resources in terms of energy, memory, and computation abilities.Advertising Looking for research paper on other technology? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More While MANETs have become popular as a result of their inexpensive set up properties, these networks are open to insider and outsider attacks due to their open nature. Typical security measures such as firewalls and cryptography may be inadequate in protecting MANETs. Considering the security problem that MANETs face, this paper will set out to propose security solutions. The paper will begin by providing an introduction to MANETs and the security problems that they face. Security Solutions for MANETs including the development of IDS will then be discussed. Brief Overview to MANETs Khokhar and Mandala (2006) defines a Mobile Ad hoc NETwork (MANET) as â€Å"a system of wireless mobile nodes that dynamically self-organize in arbitrary and temporary network topologies†(p.18).1 As a result of these self-organizing abilities, people and vehicles possessing computing devices can be interlinked without the need for pre-existing network infrastructure. MANETs are therefore occasional infrastructureless networks that are implemented by a set of mobile wireless hosts in a dynamic manner and without the need for any central administration. The inherent properties of self-organization and rapid deployment capabilities make MANETs applicable in many situations where wired networks or wireless networks which require access points would be impractical.2 However, MANETs are susceptible to a number of security risks due to their distributed nature and lack of a centralized control. Figure 1. Various applications of MANETsAdvertising We will write a custom research paper sample on MANET Security Solutions specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Security Problems in MANETs MANETs are prone to a number of routing attacks which disrupt routing operation. One of these attacks is flooding which involves the malicious node(s) exhausting the network resources such as the network’s bandwidth and computational power. Flooding attacks may result in Denial of Service which is the situation where a computer or the entire network is incapable of providing normal services (Garg Mahapatra, 2009). Service to legitimate nodes will be denied as the nodes are busy forwarding unnecessary packets or making irrelevant requests for s ervices. The limited power supply and computational capabilities of mobile devices makes them more susceptible to DOS attacks which are designed to consume the power supply of the devices and also overwhelm them with unnecessary computations. A MANET is also vulnerable to a wormhole attack which involves a malicious node sending false information claiming that it is one hop away from the sought destination. This will cause all nodes to route their data packets to the malicious node and therefore cause all routes to a destination to pass through a compromised node (Garg Mahapatra, 2009). A wormhole attack is initiated by two or more malicious nodes which possess superior communication resources to the regular nodes in the network. The attackers create high-bandwidth tunnels between attackers in the network and then promote this low-latency links as high-quality routes in order to attract neighboring sensors to these compromised tunnels. Figure 2. A wormhole attack being carried out by two attackersAdvertising Looking for research paper on other technology? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More The dynamic nature of the network topology in the MANET also exposes it to risk. Unlike wired networks which have a static network topology, MANETs make use of dynamic topologies which may change in a rapid and arbitrary manner (Zaiba, 2011). The computing devices which make up the MANET suffer from unreliable wireless links with each other due to the energy supply limitations that each device has.3 Another vulnerability comes from compromised nodes which are part of the network. As it is, a MANET is made up of autonomous nodes which join and leave the network at will. In addition to this, the physical security of nodes in a MANET cannot be guaranteed since unlike in traditional wireless networks, nodes in a MANET may exist in hostile environment where a node can be captured and then used to degrade the performance of the network or steal information from the network (Tsaur Pai, 2008). The portable devices and the security information they contain are vulnerable to compromise since some of them may have weak protection.4 An attacker may gain access to these low-end devices and then use this weak link to compromise the security of the entire network. It is therefore hard for policies for safeguarding the network to be implemented since the individual nodes can be compromised when outside the network and when they join the network, they expose the MANET to the vulnerabilities they have. Zaiba (2011) states that the threats posed by compromised nodes inside the network exceed attacks from intruders outside the network since such attacks are harder to detect. Further compounding the problem is the fact that the compromised node could be a previously trusted node in the network which behaved normally before being compromised. Security solutions are traditionally based on access control. Access control for MANETs is especially challenging due to a number of reasons. First, these ad hoc networks do not have an infrastructure which makes it impossible to deploy acces s control mechanisms at access routers or base stations as would be the case in a wired or wireless cellular network. The mobile users of the network are able to (and often do) roam freely in a large network and they require ubiquitous services at any point within the network which means that any access control mechanism should be available at each networking node’s locality so as to avoid the need for communication over the undependable multi-hop wireless link. Tsaur and Pai (2008) reveal that the difficulty in access control in a MANET comes from the access mechanism being required to â€Å"prevent unauthorized nodes from becoming a part of the group, and establish trust among members in the absence of a trusted authority† (p.417). The ADHOC routing protocols used in a MANET as each node is takes responsibility for dynamically discovering other nodes to communicate exposes the network to intruders. Malicious attackers can become a router and therefore gain access to the network communication and cause disruptions (Rai Shubha, 2010). Solutions to Security Problems Introduction Garg and Mahapatra (2009) note that two approaches can be used to protect MANETs: proactive approach which tries to prevent attackers from initiating attacks, and reactive approach which tries to identify security threats which are already present and then react accordingly. While preventive measures are preferred to reactive measures, they may not be sufficient in MANETs. A combination of these two approaches is the most prudent means of protecting the network. Flood Attacks Flooding attacks can be prevented by use of the Ad hoc on-demand distance vector (AODV) protocol. Khokhar and Mandala (2006) states that in this approach, each node in the network monitors and calculates the request rate of its neighbor and if this request rate exceeds a preset limit, then the network ID of this neighbor is blacklisted and future requests from that node are ignored in future. The inf ormation on blacklisted nodes is shared within the network which leads to compromised and malicious nodes being dropped before they can cause significant damage to the network. Intrusion Detection The most desirable method in dealing with intruders in any network is to prevent them from accessing the network. However, this method may not work in MANETs due to the absence of a fixed infrastructure that can be used to provide security for the network. Rai and Shubha (2010) assert that while proactive approaches that thwart security threats are desirable, an intrusion detection system is still an integral component in any security solution for MANET. An Intrusion Detection System (IDS) can be used to protect the computer systems that have been intruded upon by a malicious party. Intrusion detection is defined by Scarfone and Mell (2007) as the process of monitoring the events occurring in the network and analyzing them for â€Å"signs of possible incidents, which are violations or imm inent threats of violation of computer security policies, acceptable use policies, or standard security practices† (p.2). Intrusion detection is of great significant in MANETs since preventive measures such as encryption and authentication may at times not be effective in protecting network operations. This is so because such intrusion preventive measures cannot defend compromised nodes which may have previously obtained a trust relationship with other nodes within the network. There are various architectures of an IDS that can be implemented in a MANET. One approach involves having every node in the network perform independent intrusion detection and then share its results with neighboring nodes. Such an approach involves nodes reporting anomalies to other nodes so as to track the possible intruder (Zaiba, 2011). Once the intrusion has been identified and confirmed, the response might involve reorganizing the network and removing compromised nodes or reinitializing the commun ication channels with new secure keys legitimate nodes. However, this cooperative intrusion detection architecture has significant setbacks due to the huge power consumption required for all the participating nodes. Rai and Shubha (2010) propose that a cluster-based intrusion detection technique would be more efficient in a MANET. In such architecture, each node is a member of at least one cluster which is made up of nodes that reside within the same radio range. Fig 3. IDS Implementation in a MANET Establishing Trust A secure MANET should achieve the goals of â€Å"availability, confidentiality, integrity, authentication, unforgeability and non-repudiation in the network† (Yavuz Fatih, 2010, p.2). Among the various security services for MANETs, authentication is the most important issue since knowing who you are communicating with is paramount in any network. Addressing authentication is also the most complex issue owing to the frequent networking reconfiguration and node mobility in MANETs. The lack of a trusted authority in the MANET makes most of the cryptographic methods which are based on public key impractical since a continuously available trusted third party is required. Yavuz and Fatih (2010) propose the use of a multi-tier adaptive security protocol that makes use of hybrid cryptography and signcryption. This multi-tire protocol achieves a secure MANET by integrating the signcryption scheme Direct Key Exchange Using Time Stamp (DKEUTS) and Elliptic Curve Pintsov-Vanstone Signature Scheme (ECPVSS).5 This security mechanism does not overload the network with unnecessary cryptographic operations and still manages to provide sufficient security for each tier. Firewalls Firewalls which are logical barriers that prevent unauthorized or unwarranted communication between various parts of a network can be implemented to protect the MANET. Firewalls for wired and wireless mobile networks rely on static topologies to construct the outer security wall and therefore control access to and from the network. Suman and Parvinder (2010) note that conventional firewalls cannot work for MANETs since these networks do not have well defined concepts of â€Å"inside† and â€Å"outside†; a hybrid firewall implementation is therefore necessary for MANETs. The hybrid firewall implementation makes use of a random selection of MANET nodes to act as firewalls. After a fixed duration of time, a new node is selected for firewall implementation based on parameters such as power available and computational resources. This approach is efficient since the responsibility for implementing the firewall is shared among the available nodes in the network. Furthermore, Suman and Parvinder (2010) reveal that an intruder will not be able to find the entry point in the MANET since the node serving as the firewall at any one time is selected at random. This firewall implementation will therefore considerably improve the security of the MANET from o utside attacks. One implementation of MANET firewalls is by having an architecture that treats port numbers as part of the IP address and therefore makes it possible to drop unwanted traffic at an early stage. Such an implementation will save battery power of the mobile devices by saving them from forwarding unnecessary traffic. Figure 4. Firewall Implementation with node A acting as a Firewall Use of Certificates Establishment of a Public Key Infrastructure (PKI) can help to solve the problem of public key management that is inherent in MANETs. The PKI in MANETs can use a set of nodes as servers which provide certificates to the other members of the network and therefore make it possible to build certificate chains between communicating nodes. In this approach, the nodes which act as servers only provide partial certificates to the nodes they trust. Taking into consideration every certificate issued in the network, a certification graph can be developed. This certification graph i s used by two nodes to authenticate each other when they wish to exchange public keys and form a common secret (Kambourakis, et al. 2010). Since such an approach suffers from the cumbersome problem of finding a certification path in the graph, a virtual hierarch can be built among the nodes so as to reduce the time and resources spent in finding a certification path. Wormholes Detection As has been previously illustrated, MANETs are susceptible to wormhole attacks where malicious nodes advertize false shortest paths to a destination in order to intercept the packets that are being sent to it. Wormhole attacks are hard to identify since the attackers present their link as legitimate and replay valid data packets as the other end of the network and as such, communication is not disrupted by the presence of the wormhole (Meghdadi Ozdemir, 2011). The attackers replay data packets in their original format once they have read their contents, and therefore, the traditional cryptographic c hecks will be unable to flag the presence of the wormhole. Since it is hard to proactively defend against wormholes, detection mechanisms can be utilized to identify wormhole attacks and take necessary measures against this threat. Message Traveling Time Information Solutions can be used to prevent wormhole attacks. These solutions measure the round trip time (RTT) of a message and then use this value to determine whether a wormhole attack is in play. Meghdadi and Ozdemir (2011) reveal that wormholes are identified based on the fact that â€Å"the transmission time between two fake neighbors created by wormhole is considerably higher than that between two real neighbors, which are within radio range of each other† (p.94). An important factor in this solution is that no specialized hardware is required for the TTM mechanism which makes it practical for all networks. Trust based solutions can also be used in the detection of wormhole attacks. In such a solution, trust informati on is shared among nodes and each node can monitor the behavior of its neighbors and rate them (Meghdadi Ozdemir, 2011). Data packets in the network then make use of the most trustworthy path as computed from the trust information. Such an approach ensures that malicious nodes are circumvented since they will have the least trust level. Figure 5. Trust Based solution Discussion and Conclusion As the computing world becomes more portable and ad hoc, the relevance of MANETs is only going to increase. The paper has observed that MANETs have significant security risks since these networks lack a clear line of defense and malicious attacks can successfully be launched from both inside and outside the network. From the discussions given in the paper, it has been noted that MANETs are commonly employed in applications where security is of major concern. This paper has articulated the critical nature of MANETs and asserted that the security of network is of great importance. Specialized s ecurity services may therefore be required in order to deal with some problems which are unique to these networks. A number of preventive and detective measures that can be employed to deal with the security risks that are inherent in MANETs have been discussed. Protocols that can be used to ensure secure routing and detect wormholes have been presented and ways in which certification authority can be established in the network highlighted. By implementing the security solutions proposed in this paper, military and civilian applications will benefit from the numerous benefits offered by MANETs while avoiding losses that may result from malicious attacks on the networks. References Garg, N Mahapatra, RP (2009). MANET security issues. International Journal of Computer Science and Network Security, 9(8), 241-246. Kambourakis, E. et al. (2010). Efficient Certification Path Discovery for MANET. EURASIP Journal on Wireless Communications and Networking, 3(2), 1-16. Khokhar, R.H. Mandala , S. (2006). A Review of Current Routing Attacks in Mobile Ad Hoc Networks. International Journal of Computer Science and Security, 2(3), 18-29. Meghdadi, M. Ozdemir, S. (2011). A Survey of Wormhole-based Attacks and their Countermeasures in Wireless Sensor Networks. IETE Technical Review, 28(2), 89-102. Rai, P. Shubha, S. (2010). A Review of ‘MANET’s Security Aspects and Challenges’, IJCA, 162-166. Scarfone, K., Mell, P. (2007). Guide to Intrusion Detection and Prevention Systems. NY: National Institute of Standards and Technology. Suman, R.B. Parvinder, S. (2010). Random Time Identity Based Firewall In Mobile Ad hoc Networks. NY: American Institute of Physics. Tsaur, W. Pai, H. (2008). Dynamic Key Management Schemes for Secure Group Access Control Using Hierarchical Clustering in Mobile Ad Hoc Networks. NY: American Institute of Physics. Yavuz, A.A. Fatih, A. (2010). A new multi-tier adaptive military MANET security protocol using hybrid cryptography and signcryption. Turk J Elec Eng Comp Sci, 18(1), 1-21. Zaiba, I. (2011). Security issues, challenges solution in MANET. IJCST, 2(4), 108-112. Footnotes 1 The technological implementation of MANETs is similar to that of the traditional Mobile Packet Radio Networking. 2 For example, MANETs are very relevant in military applications and emergency and disaster situations where ad hoc networks which need to be flexible without any fixed base station need to be implemented 3 Bandwidth restrictions and the variable capacity of each node make MANETs have diminished processing power and they have a less transmission rates than wired or WIFI systems. 4 Individual nodes in a MANET have power limitations and they generally try to use the minimal power possible in order to last longer. Most nodes employ the most basic security measures since security implementations consume battery and processing power 5 Key management schemes have to be implemented in order to ensure secure access control in th e MANET. 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Attachment Theory

Attachment Theory Introduction This paper reports on the attachment theory and how life experience affects one’s emotional attachment to others. Attachment theory advanced by John Bowlby in the early 1950s, seeks to explain how early life relations affects an individual’s emotional bonding in future Hutchison (89). Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Attachment Theory specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More The theory gives an understanding of the different personalities as relates to emotional relationships. The theory was first focused on the relationship between children and their parents, but was later expanded to look at the whole lifespan. The theory looks at ones attachment as being influenced by both psychological conditions and the social environment. The Attachment Theory and Life Experiences According to the proponents of the attachment theory, children develop a bond with their caregivers, which grow into an emotional bond. Further research on the theory indicates that life experiences in childhood direct the course of one’s personality as well as the social and emotional development throughout his or her life. Besides the explanation advanced by the theory regarding the connection between a baby and its mother or a care giver, the theory also seeks to explain the attachment between adults Hutchison (43). Among adults, an emotional attachment is felt more especially during bereavement or separation of spouses. Babies are born without the ability to move or feed themselves. They depend on care givers to for these needs; they however have pre-programmed set of behavior that comes into action due to the environmental stimuli. Environmental stimuli may trigger a sense of fear or distress in the baby making it cry for help from the mother or the care giver. The protection or comfort offered to the baby makes it develop a stronger emotional bond with the mother and others who are closer to it. Children grow to relate comfort from distress to the people who are close to them during their early stages of development. The nature of the environment a child grows in, together with the â€Å"psychological framework builds up a child’s internal working model† Hutchison (52). The internal working model comprises of the development of expectations that an individual perceives in social interactions. The theory explains the effect of challenging parenting such as; neglect or abuse. Parents and caregivers should endeavor to develop an environment that makes children feel secure and comfortable. Advertising Looking for essay on psychology? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More The type of relationship parents establish with their children at their early stages of development determines the type of emotional attachment a child develops with them. A child who grows up in a loving and sensitive environment deve lops secure relationships in with others. Such a child grows to recognize others as being caring, loving and reliable. They also develop high self esteem and learn to deal with negative feelings. Research indicates that people who grow up in secure attachment relationships are able to demonstrate good social aptitude throughout their life. On the contrary, children brought up in unsecure environment develop an avoidant attachment. An unsecure environment to children is often characterized by fear, anxiety and rejection. This type of environment makes a child make children to downplay their emotional feelings. There is a group of children who grow up with care givers that are not consistent in responding to their emotional needs. Their care givers are sometimes sensitive, and sometimes insensitive to their feelings. Such children develop â€Å"an attachment seeking habit as they try to conquer the insensitivity of their caregivers† Hutchison (34). This sort of behavior by c hildren is referred to as ambivalent attachment, where the children seek to compensate for the inconsistent responsiveness by the caregiver. Such a child tries to manage other people’s attention through behavior sets such as; seduction, bullying rage and necessity. Hutchison, Elizabeth. Dimensions of human behavior: The changing life course. 4th Ed. Thousand oaks, CA: Sage publications, 2011. Print

Two Jumbos Collide in Canary Islands Crash of the Century Research Paper

Two Jumbos Collide in Canary Islands Crash of the Century - Research Paper Example Countless deaths and many high profile airplane accidents took place (Marcellin, 2014). The ensuing investigation of United 173 and the fatal Tenerife crash on the taxi driveway gave in to a new era in aviation. A common factor was highlighted as the cause for all these accidents - Human factor. The human factor introduced Crew Resource Management (CRM) to minimize airline accidents (Federal Aviation Administration). Investigators identified human error as the accelerators of these 70s aviation accidents. Inaccurate communication between the controllers and stringent aviation rules (clock time) as the case of KLM and Dutch air were the most ingredients of Tenerife Clash. Studies by NASA-supported the findings of the investigators listing Leadership, Team Coordination, and Decision Making as the crew errors (Marcellin, 2014). The aviation community adjusted their operations by creating an international standard to study and implement notions that eventually become the core of aviation safety. The human factor was incorporated into flight training with the focus of reducing human errors and optimizing human performance. CRM and Human factor integration has many components including Software (Rules, SOP), Hardware (Aircraft components, design), Environment (Weather, social influences), and Liveware (human element). The liveware is the centre core in modern air operation integrating directly all other factors. It is also the most error-prone and that was the sole evidence to optimize interaction between central human operator (Pilot Flying), the plane, and everyone in the aviation system during the performance of tasks (Marcellin, 2014). The interactions performance and influence behaviour positively and negatively. They include Leadership, Crew cooperation, coordination and communication, Teamwork and Interpersonal relation, Personality and attitude interactions. The interactions were recommended by FAA, and ICAO, which